Neurorehabilitation

Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience that studies the biological processes that cause human cognition, chiefly in respects to the relation between brain structures, activity and cognitive functions. The cause of it is to regulate how the brain functions and achieves performance.

• Attention
• Change blindness
• Consciousness
• Decision-making
• Learning
• Memory
• Language
• Mirror neurons
• Perception
• Social cognition
• Emotions

Psychology

Psychology is the particular study of the mind and behaviour, according to the APA. Psychology is a multibranched speciality and comprises numerous sub-fields of study like areas as human evolution, sports, fitness, clinical, social behaviour and cognitive processes.

• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Counseling Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Experimental Psychology
• Forensic Psychology
• Health Psychology

Neurodegenerative Diseases

A type of disease within cells of the CNS ceases functioning or die. The cells of the brain are jointly linked and miscommunications in one region may disrupt further brain functions, explaining that brain disorders can consequence in widespread issues. Even though there are numerous illnesses and diseases that can influence the brain, the most complex of these diseases are called neurodegenerative diseases. These diseases can influence an individual’s movement, speech, memory, intelligence, and much more. As neurodegenerative diseases are so complex, the root of various diseases remain a question. Neurodegenerative disorders generally get adverse over time and have no heal. They may be genetic or be caused by a malignancy or stroke. They also occur in persons who consume huge quantity of alcohol or are exposed to certain viruses or toxins.

• Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias
• Parkinson’s disease and PD-related disorders
• Prion disease
• Motor neurone diseases
• Huntington’s disease
• Spinocerebellar ataxia
• Spinal muscular atrophy

Stress

The body’s reaction to intellectual, physical or psychological pressure. Stress leads to chemical alteration in the body that will increase blood glucose volume, heart rate and blood pressure. It may further lead to feelings of anger, anxiety, frustration or depression. Stress may be originated by usual life activities or by an incident, such as injury or illness. Long-term stress or high levels of stress may lead to mental and physical health problems.

• Acute stress
• Episodic acute stress
• Chronic stress

Neurological Disorders

Neurological disorders are medicinally described as disorders that affect the brain as well as the nerves found all over the human body and the spinal cord. Structural, biochemical or electrical deformity in the brain, spinal cord or other nerves can grow in to a range of symptoms. Examples of symptoms comprise disappearance of sense, muscle frailty, paralysis, seizures, substandard coordination, pain, confusion and altered levels of responsiveness.

• Acute Spinal Cord Injury
• Alzheimer's Disease
• Cerebral Aneurysm
• Epilepsy and Seizures
• Muscular Dystrophy

Stroke

Stroke is the sudden death of brain cells due to lack of oxygen, caused by blockage of blood flow or burst of an artery to the brain. Sudden loss of speech, weakness, or paralysis of one side of the body can be symptoms.

• Ischemic Stroke
• Thrombotic Stroke
• Embolic Stroke
• Hemorrhagic stroke
• Intracerebral Stroke
• Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
• Subarachnoid Stroke

Clinical neurophysiology is a therapeutic specialization that work the central and peripheral nervous systems through the set down of bioelectrical pursuit, whether voluntary or restorative.

• Repetitive stimulation
• Visual evoked potentials
• Electroretinography
• Polysomnography
• Intracranial electrode stimulation

Neuroimmunology

Neuroimmunology is a field that combines neuroscience, the study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system. Neuroimmunologists find better understanding in the interactions of these two complex systems during development, homeostasis, and response to injuries.

Disorders are: Asperger syndrome, traumatic brain injury, communication, speech and language disorders, genetic disorders such as fragile-X syndrome, Down syndrome, epilepsy, and fetal alcohol syndrome.

The very usual neurological infections are: An inflammation of the brain, Encephalitis, that can be generated by either bacteria or virus. Meningitis, the inflammation of the membranes that enclose the brain and spinal cord, can be generated by either bacteria or virus.

• Fungal infections
• Parasitic infections
• Prion diseases
• Bacterial infections such as Lyme disease, tuberculosis, syphilis
• Brain abscess

Neuropharmacology

Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs modify cellular function in the nervous system, and the neural mechanisms through which they oppress behaviour. There are two main branches of neuropharmacology: behavioural and molecular. Behavioural neuropharmacology concentrates on the study of how drugs affect human behaviour (neuropsychopharmacology), including the study of how drug dependence and addiction influence the human brain. Molecular neuropharmacology contains the study of neurons and their neurochemical interactions, with the overall goal of developing drugs that have beneficial effects on neurological function.

Neurochemistry

Neurochemistry is the study of chemicals, involving neurotransmitters and other molecules such as psychopharmaceuticals and neuropeptides, that control and influence the physiology of the nervous system.

Brain Injury

It is the destruction or declension of brain cells. Brain injuries occur due to a large range of internal and external factors. In common, brain injury refers to consequential, undiscriminating trauma-induced destruction, while neurotoxicity typically mentions selective, chemically produced neuron injury.

• Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
• Acquired brain injury

Behavioural Neuroscience

Behavioural neuroscience, also called as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the implementation of the principles of biology to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behaviour in humans and other animals.

• Sensation and perception
• Motivated behaviour (hunger, thirst, sex)
• Control of movement
• Learning and memory
• Sleep and biological rhythms
• Emotion

Neurosurgery

Neurosurgery, or neurological surgery, is the medical specialty involved with the prevention, diagnosis, surgical treatment, and rehabilitation of disorders which affect any part of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, central and peripheral nervous system, and cerebrovascular system. Back pain can sometimes produce neurological symptoms such as numbness, muscle weakness, and loss of bowel and bladder control due to dysfunction at the nerve root.

Spine surgery procedures

• Laminectomy
• Microdiscectomy
• Traditional Lumbar Fusion

Paediatric Neurology

Paediatric neurology or child neurology relates to a specialized branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and management of neurological conditions in neonates (newborns), infants, children and adolescents. The department of child neurology encloses diseases and disorders of the spinal cord, brain, peripheral nervous system, autonomic nervous system, muscles and blood vessels that affect individuals in these age groups.

• Concussion
• Neonatal neurology
• Brain malformations
• Headache/migraine
• Metabolic diseases affecting the nervous system
• Neuro-oncology

• Pediatric sleep disorders
• Developmental disorders including autism
• Pediatric neuromuscular disorders including muscular dystrophy and congenital myopathies
• Neurological complications of other pediatric diseases

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a class of neurological disorders categorized by recurrent epileptic seizures. Epileptic seizures are episodes that can differ from shortened and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking. These episodes can develop in physical injuries, including frequently broken bones. In epilepsy, seizures have a tendency to recur and, as a rule, have no immediate proving cause. Isolated seizures that are arouse by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy.

• Generalized onset seizures
• Focal onset seizures
• Unknown onset seizures

Molecular Genetics

Molecular genetics is a subdivision of biology that addresses how differences in the structures or expression of DNA molecules manifests as variation among organisms. Molecular genetics frequently applies an "investigative approach" to determine the structure and/or function of genes in an organism's genome using genetic screens.  The field of study is based on the combination of several sub-fields in biology: classical Mendelian inheritance, cellular biology, molecular biology, biochemistry, and biotechnology.

• behavioural genetics
• classical genetics
• cytogenetics
• molecular genetics
• developmental genetics
• population genetics

Neurobiology

Neurobiology is the study of the nervous system and how the brain works. The field studies nervous system functions, brain function and the related structures such as the spinal cord. Neurobiology is a subcategory of both neuroscience and physiology. It is a sub discipline of the life sciences that handles with the anatomy, pathology and physiology of the nervous system.

• Neurophysiology
• Neuroanatomy
• Neuropharmacology

Biology of Aging

Aging can be defined as the time-related deterioration of the physiological function’s compulsory, for survival and fertility. The characteristics of aging as distinguished from diseases of aging (such as cancer and heart disease) affect all the individuals of a species. Mortality can be used to define biological ageing, which refers to an organism's increased rate of death as it progresses throughout its lifecycle and increases its chronological age.

• The Neuroendocrine Theory
• The Free Radical Theory
• The Membrane Theory of Aging
• The Decline Theory
• The Cross-Linking Theory

Neurogenesis:

Neurogenesis is the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSCs). It takes place in all species of animals except the porifera (sponges) and placozoans. Types of NSCs include neuroepithelial cells (NECs), radial glial cells (RGCs), basal progenitors (BPs), intermediate neuronal precursors (INPs), subventricular zone astrocytes, and sub granular zone radial astrocytes, among others.

• Developmental neurogenesis
• Adult neurogenesis

Molecular and Cell Biology

Molecular and Cell Biology (MCB) focus on the study of molecular structures and processes of cellular life and their roles in the function, reproduction, and development of living organisms. It observes the composition, structure and interactions of cellular molecules such as nucleic acids and proteins that carry out the biological processes essential for the cell's functions and maintenance.

• Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
• Cell and Developmental Biology
• Genetics, Genomics, and Development
• Immunology and Pathogenesis

Neurobiology

Neurobiology is concerned with uncovering the biological mechanisms by which nervous systems mediate behaviour. Increasing attention is being given to integrative or systems neurobiology. It is the study of aggregates of neurons and functional circuits.

• Behavioural neuroscience
• Developmental neuroscience
• Cognitive neuroscience
• Systems neuroscience
• Molecular neuroscience

CNS Injury

Acute central nervous system (CNS) injuries consist (of) stroke, traumatic brain injury, and spinal cord injury. Early brain injury is a main cause of disability and death for patients of stroke or traumatic brain injury. The procedure of initial brain damage after stroke and trauma are compound, and endure imperfectly understood. A spinal cord injury damage to any part of the spinal cord or nerves at the end of the spinal canal often causes permanent changes in strength, sensation and additional body tasks below the place of the trauma.

• Primary Injury
• Secondary Injury
• Focal Injury
• Diffuse Injury
• Open / Penetrating Injury
• Closed / Non-Penetrating Injury

Repair and Inhibition

It associates to the regrowth or repair of nervous tissues, cells or cell products. Such mechanisms may include generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin, or synapses. Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms involved, especially in the extent and speed of repair. If an axon is injured, the distal segment will undergo Wallerian degeneration, misplacing its myelin sheath. The primal segment can either die by apoptosis or undergo the chromatolytic reaction, which is an attempt at repair. In the Central Nervous System, synaptic stripping happens as glial foot procedures invade the deceased synapse.

Inhibition is the process whereby nerves can retard or prevent the functioning of an organ or part.

Excitation

The electrical activity elicited in a neuron or muscle cell in response to an external stimulus, specifically the propagation of an action potential.

Molecular Neuroscience

Molecular neuroscience is a branch which monitors concepts in molecular biology integrated to the nervous systems of animals. The scope of the topic includes subjects like mechanisms of molecular signalling in the nervous system, molecular neuroanatomy, the effects of genetics and epigenetics on neuronal development, and the molecular basis for neuroplasticity and neurodegenerative diseases. As with molecular biology, molecular neuroscience is a relatively new field that is considerably dynamic.

• Behavioural epigenetics
• Behavioural genetics
• Cellular neuroscience
• Computational neuroscience
• Connectomics
• Imaging genetics
• Integrative neuroscience

Neurodegeneration

Neurodegeneration is the gradual loss of structure or function of neurons, including their death. Many neurodegenerative diseases include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and prion diseases occur as a result of neurodegenerative processes. Such diseases are incurable, resulting in progressive degeneration of neurons.

• Alzheimer's disease
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
• Friedreich's ataxia
• Huntington's disease
• Lewy body disease
• Parkinson's disease
• Spinal muscular atrophy

Ophthalmology

Ophthalmology is a discipline in surgery and medicine that handles with the identification and therapy of eye diseases. It is an exciting surgical specialty that encompasses many different subspecialties, including: Strabismus/pediatric ophthalmology, glaucoma, neuro-ophthalmology, retina/uveitis, anterior segment/cornea, oculoplastic/orbit, and ocular oncology.

Visual Neuroscience

Visual Neuroscience is a discipline in neuroscience which highlights on the visual structure of the human anatomy, specially found in the brain's visual cortex. The main goal of visual neuroscience is to understand how neural activity results in visual perception, as well as behaviours dependent on vision.

Neuroscience

Neuroscience, also known as Neural Science, is the study of how the nervous system develops, its structure, and what it does. Neuroscientists concentrate on the brain and its effect on behaviour and cognitive functions.

Artificial intelligence

(AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans and mimic their actions. The word can also be included to any machine which shows traits linked with a human mind like educating and issue-solving.

• Machine learning
• Neural Network
• Robotics
• Expert Systems
• Fuzzy Logic
• Natural Language Processing

Neuroinformatics

Neuroinformatics is a scientific study of information processing by nervous systems from a computational prospect. It is related with philosophy (computational theory of mind), psychology (information processing theory), computer science (natural computing, bio-inspired computing), among others.

Neuroinformatics in neuropsychology and neurobiology --> Models of neural computation

Neurocomputing technologies --> a. Artificial neural networks

                                                       b. Brain emulation and mind uploading. ...

Auxiliary sciences of neuroinformatics --> Data analysis and knowledge organisation

Computational Neuroscience

Computational neuroscience (also known as theoretical neuroscience or mathematical neuroscience) is a branch of neuroscience which utilizes mathematical models, theoretical analysis and abstractions of the brain to understand the principles that monitor the growth, composition, physiology and cognitive capacity of the nervous system. Computational neuroscience mainly targets on the description of biologically plausible neurons (and neural systems) and their physiology and dynamics, and it is therefore not directly concerned with biologically unrealistic models used in connectionism, control theory, cybernetics, quantitative psychology, machine learning, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence and computational learning theory.

• Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
• Human psychology
• Medical sciences
• Mental models
• Computational anatomy
• Information theory

Human Brain Mapping

Brain mapping is the study of the anatomy and function of the brain and spinal cord through the use of imaging (including intra-operative, microscopic, endoscopic and multi-modality imaging), immunohistochemistry, molecular & optogenetics, stem cell and cellular biology. It is a set of neuroscience techniques predicated on the mapping of (biological) quantities or properties onto spatial representations of the (human or non-human) brain resulting in maps.

• Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
• Regional metabolic rate of glucose (rCMRglc)
• Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
• Electroencephalography (EEG)
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

Brain Stimulation and Imaging

Brain Imaging and Stimulation particularly focus on the application of neuroimaging techniques for the structural and functional study of the human nervous system, as well as works involves invasive and non-invasive stimulation techniques of the human nervous system.

• Electroencephalography (EEG)
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Cerebral Blood Flow

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) is the blood transfusion to the brain in a given period of time. In an adult, CBF is typically 750 millilitres per minute or 15% of the cardiac output. This compares to an average perfusion of 50 to 54 millilitres of blood per 100 grams of brain tissue per minute. An increase in hydrogen ion concentration lead to  increased cerebral blood flow. A decrease in blood viscosity will increase cerebral blood flow. An increase in carbon dioxide levels results in increased cerebral blood flow.

Metabolism

Metabolism depends on a continuous circulatory supply of glucose and oxygen to neurons and astrocytes. In astrocytes, glucose is partly converted to lactate, which is then released in the extracellular space and taken up by neurons. with neuronal activity, lactate oxidation increases.

Brain Pathology

Any disorder, disease, or pathological condition affecting the brain (e.g., tumour, stroke, traumatic injury). Pathology is the study of the causes and effects of disease or injury. Pathology highlights elements of disease: Source, methods of growth (pathogenesis), structural changes of cells (morphologic changes), and the result of alterations (clinical manifestations).

Oncology

Oncology is the learning of spinal cord neoplasms and brain, most of which are (at least eventually) highly terrifying and life-dangerous (astrocytoma, glioma, glioblastoma multiforme, ependymoma, pontine glioma, and brain stem tumours are among the most examples of these). Among the malignant brain cancers, gliomas of the brainstem and pons, glioblastoma multiforme, and high-grade (highly anaplastic) astrocytoma are among the worst.

Stem Cells Role in Neuro-Biological Treatment

Stem cells are incomparable human cells that are able to mature into many different cell types. This can range from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases, they can also repair damaged tissues. Neural stem cells (NSCs) offer the capability to replace lost tissue after nervous system injury. Thus, stem cells can uplift host neural repair in part by secreting growth factors, and their regeneration-promoting activities can be modified by gene delivery.

• Totipotent (or Omnipotent) Stem Cells
• Pluripotent Stem Cells
• Multipotent Stem Cells
• Oligopotent Stem Cells
• Unipotent Stem Cells

Neurodermatology

Neurodermatitis is a skin condition which starts with an itchy patch in the skin. This itch-scratch cycle makes the affected skin to become thick and leathery. it may also develop several itchy spots, mainly on the neck, wrists, forearms, legs or anal region. It is also known as lichen simplex chronicus is not life-threatening or contagious. But the itching can be so intense or recurrent that it disrupts your sleep, sexual function and quality of life.

Neurorehabilitation centres are designed to treat patients with the nervous system or neurological disorders. Rehabilitation aims to increase function, reduce cripple symptoms, and improve a patient’s quality of life. There are different types of rehabilitation treatments like physiotherapy, occupational therapy, rehabilitation psychology, speech and swallow therapy, vision therapy, and language therapy, and therapies focused on daily function and community re-integration depends on the areas of the body affected by the neurological condition.

• Physiotherapy and Physiotherapists
• Occupational Therapy
• Rehabilitation Psychology
• Physiological psychology

Movement Disorders

Movement disorders encompass a range of conditions including ataxia, dystonia, essential tremor, multiple system atrophy, Parkinson’s disease (PD) and restless legs syndrome. The treatment landscape of PD has seen numerous developments, including the introduction of dopamine agonists and MAO-B inhibitors, along with device-assisted therapies that prove particularly useful in advanced-stage disease. The first-line treatment of ataxia with botulinum toxin is long established, but new preparations of the drug are likely to contribute to the future landscape.

Neuroimmunology

Neuroimmunology aims to understand the interactions of the immune and nervous systems. Neural targets involved in many aspects of homeostasis are affected by inflammatory cytokines. The most well-known autoimmune neurological disorder is multiple sclerosis, characterised by an inflammatory autoimmune attack on the myelin sheath and neurodegeneration. Neuroinflammation also plays a role in in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington’s disease, stroke, chronic depression and schizophrenia. Neuroimmunology is also an important consideration in the design of neural implants. Further understanding of the balance between beneficial and pathological effects of the immune system on the neuronal system will facilitate the development of novel therapies.

Neurogenomics

Neurogenomics is the study of an organism that impacts the development and function of its nervous system. Neurogenomics investigates connections among genotypes, phenotypes, and the earth, and also utilizing a scope of genomic and bioinformatics ways to deal with integrate datasets catching various levels of sensory system function

This field unites functional genomics and neurobiology in order to understand the nervous system from a genomic perspective

Diabetic neuropathy

Diabetic neuropathy is a nerve-damaging disease due to diabetes. Excessive intake of sugar can damage the blood vessels and nerves. It happens often in the legs and feet. But it also affects organs in your body.

• Pain in the hands, feet, or legs
• Tingling ("pins and needles") in the feet

Clinical Neurology

Clinical Neurology is a branch of neuroscience that focuses on the scientific study of fundamental mechanisms of primary diseases and the state of the brain and CNS. It works to develop innovative ways of Visualizing and recognizing such diseases and finally developing original treatments.

Translational Neurology

Translational Neurology is the specialization that applies neuroscience research to convert and progress into clinical applications and innovative therapies for nervous system disorders. Translational Neurology encloses the areas like deep brain stimulation, neurorehabilitation, brain-machine interfaces, and the growth of devices for the sensory nervous system like auditory implants, retinal implants, and electronic skins.

Neuromuscular Disorders affect the function of muscles due to troubles with the nerves and muscles in your body. The most familiar sign of these Disorders is muscle weakness. Neurons shoot and admit electrical dispatches to and from the body to help manage voluntary muscles. formerly the neurons get unhealthy or die, communication between the nervous system and muscles breaks down. Mayo Clinic neurologists deliver complete evaluation of these diseases, including electrodiagnostic studies and other tests. Conditions and symptoms of the neuromuscular diseases are.

• Lambert-Eaton Syndrome
• Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)
• Myasthenia Gravis (MG)
• Myopathies
• Muscular Dystrophies
• Peripheral Neuropathies
• Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) Disease
• Motor Neurone Disease

A mental health disorder characterized by sensibilities of nervousness, anxiety, or fear that are strong enough to interfere with one's daily activities. Examples of anxiety disorders include fear attacks, compulsive-obsessive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Symptoms involve pressure that is out of proportion to the impact of the event, inability to set aside a solicitude, and restlessness. Treatment includes counseling or medication, including antidepressants.

Sleep Disorders

Sleep disorders( or sleep-wake diseases) involve problems with the quality, timing, and amount of sleep, which influence daytime distress and impairment in performing. Sleep-wake disorders frequently come along with medical conditions or other psychological health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, or cognitive diseases. There are several different types of sleep-wake diseases, of which insomnia is the most common. Other sleep-wake disorders include obstructive sleep apnea, parasomnias, narcolepsy, and restless leg pattern.         

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder
• Specific phobias
• Panic disorder
• Clinical Depression
• Anxiety Disorder
• Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
• Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Central Nervous System Hypersomnia
• Central Sleep Apnea
• Circadian Rhythm Disorders
• Fatal Familial Insomnia
• Narcolepsy
• Parasomnias